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Psychodynamic theory
Psychodynamic theory also sprang from Sigmund Freud's
thinking, but they believed that he placed too little
emphasis on social factors in understanding human behavior
and was too concerned about sexual urges. Erik Erikson is
central to the development of psychodynamic psychology with
his theory that personality is shaped throughout life
through eight stages of life:
- Phase 1 (0–1.5 years) - the establishment of basic
Confidence or Distrust
- Phase 2 (1.5–3 years) - Independence or shame and
doubt
- Phase 3 (3-6 years) - Initiative or guilt
- Stage 4 (6-12 years) - Labor or inferiority
- Phase 5 (adolescence) - Identity or role conflict
- Phase 6 (early adulthood) - Proximity or isolation
- Stage 7 (middle age) - Productivity or downtime
- Phase 8 (old age) - I integrity or despair
Behavior Hinduism
In the 1900s, there was no consensus on what psychology
should study, and there was some frustration at how brief
psychoanalysis had come in understanding the human
psyche. Introspection as a research method was seen as
unscientific and unfit to gain knowledge of the soul. You
had to have more reliable methods that could be documented
and tested.
It was in this field that behaviorism developed, almost
like a protest against the doctrine of the soul and
psychoanalysis. To gain reliable access to the material to
be studied, the behaviorists redefined the goal of
psychological studies from the doctrine of the soul to the
doctrine of behavior.
The early behaviorists were fascinated by logical
positivism, a philosophy of science that developed in the
1920s among the so-called Vienna Circle members. The most
prominent members of the Vienna Circle were Moritz Schlick (1882-1936), Rudolf
Carnap (1891-1970) and Philip Frank (1884-1966). The
positivists discussed how modern science applied to man had
to change in the light of recent research in physics. They
argued that a scientific statement could only make sense if
it could be proved (verified) by direct
observations. Scientific theories must be verified through
observations and experiments.
Pavlov
One of the early behaviorists was Ivan Petrovich
Pavlov (1849-1936). His contribution was primarily to
describe classical conditioning as a learning
paradigm. Pavlov was a physiologist and discovered by chance
that the dogs he was experimenting with began to drool when
they heard the dog passer through the corridor with
food. The discovery led to systematic experiments that
showed that it was possible to teach the dog how to pick up
on other stimuli, such as the sound of a bell instead of the
smell of food. He called the scent of food unconditional
stimulus (US) and the cycle of unconditional response
(UR). Repeated combinations of sound and food in the mouth
led to cycling after the sound even without food. He called
the sound conditional stimulus (BS), and this cycle he
called conditional response (BR).
Watson
Behaviorism as a scientific paradigm was established
by John B. Watson (1878-1958). One could say that Watson
further refined Pavlov's stimulus-response (SR) paradigm
from applying physiological responses to all behaviors. He
imagined that you could predict behavior if you knew the
stimulus, and deduce what the stimulus was if you knew the
response. He was keen to apply his concepts to children's
development, especially to emotional development. One of the
most famous experiments in psychology is Albert and the
rat. Using Pavlov's classic condition, he made a loud noise
behind Albert's head when he saw a white rat. Albert became
a rat rat, and the fear was generalized to other similar
furry animals and objects. Watson believed that adult
phobias developed in the same way.
Tolman
In the 1930s, behaviorism changed considerably both
empirically and theoretically. The psychological experiments
took place in the animal laboratories. Pavlov's simple
classical conditional paradigm on salivary secretion in dogs
and Watson's extension of the stimulus-response model to all
human actions were expanded to take into account the
consequences of the behavior (Response R). Concepts such as
reinforcing behavior and extinction (extinguishing behavior)
saw the light of day in the neobehaviorists. The most
important of these were Edvard C. Tolman and Clark L. Hull.
Edvard C. Tolman is best known for developing the term
"intervening variable" (an intervening or intermediate
variable) that was an unobservable factor (O) that would
explain how the behavior (R) could occur as a result of a
stimulus (S). The model was S - O - R where the intervening
variable was O, which represented organism. Tolman used rats
as laboratory animals in the lab, which he trained to find
the maze opening. During these experiments, he developed the
theory of "cognitive maps" that explained why the rat spent
less time with each repetition in finding the maze. Other
phenomena that could be included in O were expectation,
motivation, knowledge and so on. One could say that Tolman's
works were the origin of cognitive behaviorism and later of
cognitive psychology.
Hole
Clark L. Hull was the theory builder among the
neobehaviorists. He built up a rigorous theory of learning
on mathematical models. He anchored the concept of
reinforcement in physiological needs reduction. To explain
why, for example, food enhanced eating, he referred to a
reduction in the need for food as a result of eating. He
expanded the model to include needs other than physiological
in that it was possible to learn to get social (proximity,
friendship) cultural (literature, music) or intellectual
needs (problem solving, chess). Hull's interest in
mathematics characterized his theory. He thought it must be
possible to calculate mathematically the tendency to act in
a given situation by measuring the strength of a stimulus,
how quickly one reacted and how many times one repeated the
action. He believed that he could calculate the probability
that the action would occur when the stimulus
arose. Stimulus could be the sight of food. But in order to
make the equation go up, he needed a driving force he called
"drive" and he developed different "drives" for different
actions (eating, having sex, running, and so on) based on
what incentives were available (for example, hunger).
Hull's theories were initially well received by the
behaviorists, but quickly lost their influence as other and
more plausible models saw the light of day.
Shine
The most influential of the behaviorists was Burrhus F.
Skinner (1904- 1990). He was far in line with John B.
Watson, who pulled the consequences of behavior into the
model of learning. He distinguished himself from Watson by
drawing consciousness and other unobservable events into the
model, such as thoughts and feelings which he called
"private events". But unlike the neobehaviorists, he does
not allow these phenomena to be the causes of
behavior. Instead, he regarded them as physical phenomena
that must be understood separately and with the same
explanatory mechanisms as open, public behavior.
With his conceptual apparatus, Skinner developed the
philosophical direction " radical behaviorism ". The most
important contribution was that he based on Charles
Darwin's theory of the evolution of the species, where
development occurs by selection of genes so that the
characteristics and traits of the individuals were the ones
most suitable for the species' survival. Skinner transferred
this theory to how behavior is established and developed by
what he called "selection of behavior by its
consequences". These consequences and the conditions under
which the behavior arises he called the behavior's
"conditions of reinforcement".
Skinner also made important contributions to
understanding language. He presented the
language analysis in 1957 in the book Verbal behavior in which
he analyzed the meaning of words as behaviors established by
their conditions of reinforcement. All behavior maintained
by amplifiers mediated by other people, he called verbal
behavior. Verbal behavior was thus all behavior that
affected other people, not just speech.
In the animal laboratory, where he did accurate and
well-controlled experiments with rats and pigeons, he used
the " Skinner box ". It was a square foot large box with
trigger mechanism (pushable lever) for food that the animals
were trained to operate. In this way he could study a number
of variations in the relationship between the response of
the animal and the amplifiers.
Skinner was an active socialist. The most extensive
debate came in the wake of the 1948 book Walden Two, in
which he describes an ideal society. The community is
organized so that all members can live a good life. To
establish a collective responsibility and prevent
selfishness among the residents, the children are raised by
the collective rather than within the narrow confines of the
family. The work tasks in society were rewarded according to
a weighted system so that attractive work assignments gave
lower reward value than less attractive tasks. This made it
attractive to take on the unattractive tasks. The system is
in many ways the opposite of what we are used to, where
unattractive tasks are usually poorly paid and have low
status.
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